Radical poetry represents unrest and a conscious need for change. The change may be represented in the poem’s content, or in the poetic style itself. Radical poems neglect any specific form and differ in length and style. A poem can be deemed radical not just by its liberal subject matter, but by the poet’s obscure articulation and tendency to move away from poetic form and tradition. The change in poetic convention contributed to a greater sense of progressive democratic transformation from conservative ideals. The poetry tends to convey a serious message rather than provide an escapist pastime. Social, political, and religious content often appear in radical poetry. A humanitarian stance is often taken by radical poets to elicit sympathy from readers. Poets, such as Matthew Arnold, felt a sense of responsibility to the public, acting as prophets for social change and progression. Radical poetry is deemed rebellious due to its alternative stance on order, politics, society, and spirituality. Victorian “radicalism”, one must note, differs greatly from our present day definition of the term. Deviation from convention was deemed radical for Victorians. During a period of corruption, industrial expansion, class separation, and confusion, radical poets acted as a “mode of cultural intervention” (Harrison 1). In Early Victorian Poetry of Social Ferment, D. Phil A. Bose describes radical poets as “trying to attain philosophical synthesis of the many sometimes conflicting aspects of life” (81). Radical poems challenge hegemonic ideas and inspire alternative thought processes. The poetry attempts to insert a lost humanity back into Victorian life.
In Early Victorian Poetry of Social Ferment, D. Phil A. Bose provides examples of radical poetic content:
“We meet with poems exulting over abolition of the slave trade; poems sympathizing with convicts; poems on the fallen woman; poems emphasizing the sorrows of emigrants; temperance is the theme of some propagandists, while colonial life funds some spirited exponents” (32).
Politics and History
Initial democratic change in the Victorian era was considered radical due to England's large conservative population. Eventually, corrupt democracy and conservative politics controlling the populous caused people to seek change. Class alienation and separation emerged as a serious problem. Radical poetry peaked in response to Victorian systems of control and the unfair distribution of power. Many poems reflect the divide between classes, the resulting depression of the masses, and the lack of community connection. Radical poets often involved themselves in politics. A Chartist leader and poet, Ebenezer Jones, wrote on the “cleavage and hatred between the classes” while promoting “essential human dignity” and a “claiming of fundamental rights” (21). Some radical poems address issues regarding industrialization in England. "The Cry of the Children" (1842) by Elizabeth Barrett Browning, depicts the turmoil of child labour and begs society to take responsibility. In a review of radical poetry, Odile Boucher Rivalain suggests, radical poetry is connected to political poetry, which in turn illuminates its “political and social mission” (355). Elizabeth Barrett Browning
Elizabeth Barrett Browning, Engraving, September 1859, engraved by: T.O. Barlow, author: Macaire Havre
Elizabeth Barrett Browning challenged poetic convention, notably in "Sonnets from the Portuguese" (1850). Changing the classic Petrarchan sonnet, the speakers of the poem is a woman’s voice of authority rather than a man's. The love she describes for Robert Browning is sensual and overflowing, a feeling Victorian women were not expected to express. The love is also requited, which also breaks the Petrarchan tradition of a masculine speaker dwelling on forbidden love. She also includes half rhymes to break convention further. Furthermore, "Sonnets from the Portuguese" defies the lyrical tone that feminine poetry was expected to carry in the Victorian era.
Robert Browning
Robert Browning (1865 photogravure by Julia Margaret Cameron).jpg
Robert Browning’s poems are radical due to the content, as well as his articulation. He allows readers to discover their own meaning from his obscure verses. This style challenged Victorians expecting tradition. Browning's poetry does not simply provide instructions on how to feel, and Victorians were initially confused by his style: “He created a radically new form for which his audience did not know the rules” (Landow). Browning gives power to the reader by keeping his subjective meaning hidden, and instead provides a platform for the reader’s personal interpretation. In "Porphyria’s Lover" (1836), Browning satirizes the conventional lyric poem, clearly moving away from conservative poetic tradition. Browning wrote poems portraying internal versus external conflict, often depicting heroic characters who feel tension with the outside world. In "Caliban upon Setebos" (1864), he explores personal uncertainty through his allusions to Darwinism, yet maintains faith in religion. In a review of the poem, C. R. Tracy states, “one can also see in it an autobiographical interest, as an expression of Browning’s own opinion on certain religious questions" (488). Tracy also states, "on the whole, Browning was conservative in his religious thinking" (487-488). The representation of conflict with his environment combined with his religious exploration help define Browning as a radical poet. Although Browning sought change, he was uncomfortable with poets having a great influence on readers.
D. Phil A. Bose writes of Browning,
“So deeply impressed is Browning by his experiences of the misery of common people and so strongly he comes to believe in the poet’s social responsibility that. . . he denounces those poets who think it fit to sing frivolous madrigals while people suffer” (54).
Matthew Arnold
Matthew Arnold, Project Gutenberg
Unlike Browning, Matthew Arnold felt poets were sage figures and supported the power he saw poetry to possess. Arnold was liberal writer who sought political change. He also believed in the accessibility of poetry, regardless of his impressive level of education. Arnold's poetic style reflects his alternative world view. He wrote, "Dover Beach" (1851), which experiments with time and space in an extraordinary way, especially to Victorian readers. In the poem, he moves from the present experience of observing the beach to an historical analysis, touching on the vulnerability of England under threat of French invasion. He also ponders the philosophy of melancholy, and in the end, comes to no clear conclusion. Arnold invites the acceptance of unanswered questions, similar to Emily Brontë. Emily Brontë
Emily Brontë, 1833, author: Patrick Branwell Brontë
Emily Brontë wrote radically in terms of subjective religion and imagination. During the Victorian era, collective religion was generally stressed by the populous in response to frighting scientific progression and emerging existential philosophy. Brontë
pushed against the norm and expressed and celebrated individual religion. As the daughter of a clergyman, her expansive questioning of spirituality and possibility caused initially sparked criticism from Victorian readers. Her first publication of poetry, with her sisters Charlotte and Anne, sold a mere two copies. One of the poem's included in the sisters' collection called, "No Coward Soul Is Mine" (1850), explores abstract ideas regarding infinity. She speaks of multiple universes and endless possibilities to the afterlife. Brontë not only veers from convention through content, but plays with poetic form as well. She often includes varied stress patterns while remaining inside rhyme schemes.
Criticism
Radical poetry underwent criticism by John Stuart Mill during the 1830s and 40s relating the poems' quality to the abundance of poetry produced during the time period; he contemplates the separation "between poetry and prose" (Rivalain 356). Mill also suggests "True poetry" has an ever-lasting transcendence, whereas Radical poetry eventually came to end (361). He believes the social mission of the era was "praiseworthy" enough, and "eloquence or rhetoric" could have fulfilled the task Radical poetry undertook (361).
Conclusion
Recently, Victorian Radical poetry has been associated with later socialist movements in England. According to professor and author, Ruth Livesey, “[Victorian] poetry had a central role in developing, sustaining and memorializing” socialism that appeared later in the nineteenth century (2). Overall, Radical poets rebelled against feelings of subordination. Although the rebellion was minute compared to today’s understanding of “radical”, these poets provided a voice for the unheard and rebelled from poetic convention.
Form: The organizational mode of a poem. (Wheeler)
Prose: Literary work not written in a regular metre. (Wheeler)
Works Cited
Bose, A. Early Victorian Poetry of Social Ferment. Aligarh: Raleigh Literary Society, Muslim U, 1957. Print.
Harrison, Antony H. Victorian Poets and the Politics of Culture. Charlottesville and London: U of Virginia, 1998. Print.
Landow, George. "Gerard Manley Hopkins and the Difficulties of Victorian Poetry."Gerard Manley Hopkins and the Difficulties of Victorian Poetry. The Victorian Web, 1 Jan. 2006. Web. 3 Feb. 2015.
Livesey, Ruth. "Socialism and Victorian Poetry." Literature Compass 1.1 (2004). Web. 1 Feb. 2015.
Rivalain, Odile Boucher. "Bringing out the Sympathies of Mankind": Reviewing Radical Poetry in "Tait's Edinburgh Magazine" and "The Westminster Review." Victorian Periodicals Review 30.4 (1997): 350-67. Web. 1 Feb. 2015.
Tracy, C.R. "Caliban upon Setebos." Studies in Philology 35.3 (1938): 487-88. Web. 2 Feb. 2015.
Wheeler, Dr. L. Kip. "Literary Terms and Definitions." Literary Terms and Definitions. Carson-Newman College, 1 Jan. 2014. Web. 3 Feb. 2015.
Definition
Radical poetry represents unrest and a conscious need for change. The change may be represented in the poem’s content, or in the poetic style itself. Radical poems neglect any specific form and differ in length and style. A poem can be deemed radical not just by its liberal subject matter, but by the poet’s obscure articulation and tendency to move away from poetic form and tradition. The change in poetic convention contributed to a greater sense of progressive democratic transformation from conservative ideals. The poetry tends to convey a serious message rather than provide an escapist pastime. Social, political, and religious content often appear in radical poetry. A humanitarian stance is often taken by radical poets to elicit sympathy from readers. Poets, such as Matthew Arnold, felt a sense of responsibility to the public, acting as prophets for social change and progression. Radical poetry is deemed rebellious due to its alternative stance on order, politics, society, and spirituality. Victorian “radicalism”, one must note, differs greatly from our present day definition of the term. Deviation from convention was deemed radical for Victorians. During a period of corruption, industrial expansion, class separation, and confusion, radical poets acted as a “mode of cultural intervention” (Harrison 1). In Early Victorian Poetry of Social Ferment, D. Phil A. Bose describes radical poets as “trying to attain philosophical synthesis of the many sometimes conflicting aspects of life” (81). Radical poems challenge hegemonic ideas and inspire alternative thought processes. The poetry attempts to insert a lost humanity back into Victorian life.
In Early Victorian Poetry of Social Ferment, D. Phil A. Bose provides examples of radical poetic content:
Politics and History
Initial democratic change in the Victorian era was considered radical due to England's large conservative population. Eventually, corrupt democracy and conservative politics controlling the populous caused people to seek change. Class alienation and separation emerged as a serious problem. Radical poetry peaked in response to Victorian systems of control and the unfair distribution of power. Many poems reflect the divide between classes, the resulting depression of the masses, and the lack of community connection. Radical poets often involved themselves in politics. A Chartist leader and poet, Ebenezer Jones, wrote on the “cleavage and hatred between the classes” while promoting “essential human dignity” and a “claiming of fundamental rights” (21). Some radical poems address issues regarding industrialization in England. "The Cry of the Children" (1842) by Elizabeth Barrett Browning, depicts the turmoil of child labour and begs society to take responsibility. In a review of radical poetry, Odile Boucher Rivalain suggests, radical poetry is connected to political poetry, which in turn illuminates its “political and social mission” (355).
Elizabeth Barrett Browning
Elizabeth Barrett Browning challenged poetic convention, notably in "Sonnets from the Portuguese" (1850). Changing the classic Petrarchan sonnet, the speakers of the poem is a woman’s voice of authority rather than a man's. The love she describes for Robert Browning is sensual and overflowing, a feeling Victorian women were not expected to express. The love is also requited, which also breaks the Petrarchan tradition of a masculine speaker dwelling on forbidden love. She also includes half rhymes to break convention further. Furthermore, "Sonnets from the Portuguese" defies the lyrical tone that feminine poetry was expected to carry in the Victorian era.
Robert Browning
Robert Browning’s poems are radical due to the content, as well as his articulation. He allows readers to discover their own meaning from his obscure verses. This style challenged Victorians expecting tradition. Browning's poetry does not simply provide instructions on how to feel, and Victorians were initially confused by his style: “He created a radically new form for which his audience did not know the rules” (Landow). Browning gives power to the reader by keeping his subjective meaning hidden, and instead provides a platform for the reader’s personal interpretation. In "Porphyria’s Lover" (1836), Browning satirizes the conventional lyric poem, clearly moving away from conservative poetic tradition. Browning wrote poems portraying internal versus external conflict, often depicting heroic characters who feel tension with the outside world. In "Caliban upon Setebos" (1864), he explores personal uncertainty through his allusions to Darwinism, yet maintains faith in religion. In a review of the poem, C. R. Tracy states, “one can also see in it an autobiographical interest, as an expression of Browning’s own opinion on certain religious questions" (488). Tracy also states, "on the whole, Browning was conservative in his religious thinking" (487-488). The representation of conflict with his environment combined with his religious exploration help define Browning as a radical poet. Although Browning sought change, he was uncomfortable with poets having a great influence on readers.
D. Phil A. Bose writes of Browning,
Matthew Arnold
Unlike Browning, Matthew Arnold felt poets were sage figures and supported the power he saw poetry to possess. Arnold was liberal writer who sought political change. He also believed in the accessibility of poetry, regardless of his impressive level of education. Arnold's poetic style reflects his alternative world view. He wrote, "Dover Beach" (1851), which experiments with time and space in an extraordinary way, especially to Victorian readers. In the poem, he moves from the present experience of observing the beach to an historical analysis, touching on the vulnerability of England under threat of French invasion. He also ponders the philosophy of melancholy, and in the end, comes to no clear conclusion. Arnold invites the acceptance of unanswered questions, similar to Emily Brontë.
Emily Brontë
Emily Brontë wrote radically in terms of subjective religion and imagination. During the Victorian era, collective religion was generally stressed by the populous in response to frighting scientific progression and emerging existential philosophy. Brontë
pushed against the norm and expressed and celebrated individual religion. As the daughter of a clergyman, her expansive questioning of spirituality and possibility caused initially sparked criticism from Victorian readers. Her first publication of poetry, with her sisters Charlotte and Anne, sold a mere two copies. One of the poem's included in the sisters' collection called, "No Coward Soul Is Mine" (1850), explores abstract ideas regarding infinity. She speaks of multiple universes and endless possibilities to the afterlife. Brontë not only veers from convention through content, but plays with poetic form as well. She often includes varied stress patterns while remaining inside rhyme schemes.
Criticism
Radical poetry underwent criticism by John Stuart Mill during the 1830s and 40s relating the poems' quality to the abundance of poetry produced during the time period; he contemplates the separation "between poetry and prose" (Rivalain 356). Mill also suggests "True poetry" has an ever-lasting transcendence, whereas Radical poetry eventually came to end (361). He believes the social mission of the era was "praiseworthy" enough, and "eloquence or rhetoric" could have fulfilled the task Radical poetry undertook (361).
Conclusion
Recently, Victorian Radical poetry has been associated with later socialist movements in England. According to professor and author, Ruth Livesey, “[Victorian] poetry had a central role in developing, sustaining and memorializing” socialism that appeared later in the nineteenth century (2). Overall, Radical poets rebelled against feelings of subordination. Although the rebellion was minute compared to today’s understanding of “radical”, these poets provided a voice for the unheard and rebelled from poetic convention.
Further Reading
Andrea de Sarto, Robert Browning
Rabbi Ben Ezra, Robert Browning
Song, Ebenezer Elliott
The night is darkening round me, Emily BrontëShall earth no more inspire thee, Emily Brontë
Literary Definitions
Form: The organizational mode of a poem. (Wheeler)
Prose: Literary work not written in a regular metre. (Wheeler)
Works Cited
Bose, A. Early Victorian Poetry of Social Ferment. Aligarh: Raleigh Literary Society, Muslim U, 1957. Print.
Harrison, Antony H. Victorian Poets and the Politics of Culture. Charlottesville and London: U of Virginia, 1998. Print.
Landow, George. "Gerard Manley Hopkins and the Difficulties of Victorian Poetry."Gerard Manley Hopkins and the Difficulties of Victorian Poetry. The Victorian Web, 1 Jan. 2006. Web. 3 Feb. 2015.
Livesey, Ruth. "Socialism and Victorian Poetry." Literature Compass 1.1 (2004). Web. 1 Feb. 2015.
Rivalain, Odile Boucher. "Bringing out the Sympathies of Mankind": Reviewing Radical Poetry in "Tait's Edinburgh Magazine" and "The Westminster Review." Victorian Periodicals Review 30.4 (1997): 350-67. Web. 1 Feb. 2015.
Tracy, C.R. "Caliban upon Setebos." Studies in Philology 35.3 (1938): 487-88. Web. 2 Feb. 2015.
Wheeler, Dr. L. Kip. "Literary Terms and Definitions." Literary Terms and Definitions. Carson-Newman College, 1 Jan. 2014. Web. 3 Feb. 2015.